Medicine Beliefs Traditional Doctors Healers Other Practitioners

Traditional Beliefs

Tswana Concept of Illness

Something should perhaps be noted about what is the traditional belief about sickness and iIl-health. As is noted elsewhere, the Tswana concept of illness is not limited to the "European" concept, i.e. human organic disorders. Also included in the category of those considered to be ill are those who could pollute others, i.e. those suffering from maoto a mo1elo ("Hot blood"). Such people are menstruating women, newly confined and pregnant women, the recently bereaved - especially those most closely related to the deceased - the widowed, recently miscarried women (and men to a lesser degree), recently returned travellers and warriors, murderers, fornicators and adulterers. All of these were believed to suffer from the condition called maoto a molelo - "hot" blood. They are believed to transfer this condition to the pathways through their tracks and footprints. The contagious condition can be especially dangerous to people who are considered ritually weak I.e. those whose seriti (shadow)is weak; livestock and germinating and growing crops are also in danger from people with maoto a molelo. Therefore people with this condition until they have been treated by medicines to "cool" them, should avoid pathways where people walk. These people, if left untreated, are also believed to adversely affect the rain, Ieading to drought and starvation.

Thus it can be seen that much of the protective function of traditional medicine is to protect against the adverse effects of maoto a molelo.

Another common cause of ill-health is displeased Badimo and dikgaba. These two causes of ill-health can be avoided by an individual following the moral code.

Boloi (sorcery) is a common cause of ill-health. To a certain extent this can also be avoided by an individual keeping the moral code i.e. being generous, welcoming, modest etc. i.e. not causing other individuals to feel malice, envy or hatred. Unlike in many other African countries, sorcery is the result of the conscious evil intent of an individual towards another. Sorcerers and traditional doctors use the same ingredients that are mostly derived from the “undomesticated bush" area of the Tswana Universe. Whereas the traditional doctor usually uses them positively in order to effect a cure, protection, or productivity, a sorcerer is able to reverse their effects in order to make them destroy. So apart from an individual attempting to avoid causing such malice in other individuals by "correct" social behaviour, they can also use protective measures against the effects of such actions. These measures are administered through the agency of a traditional doctor and will be outlined in greater detail

Another cause of ill-health can be a category called Meila. This includes all adverse conditions that result from the breaking of taboos. More will be mentioned about this later.

As noted by researchers in other African societies there is a category of illness that cannot be attributed to any of the above mentioned causes. “It is recognized that some conditions "just happen”. Most of the non-serious illnesses such as colds, coughs, small grazes and cuts etc. fall into this category.

Also some of the more serious diseases and adverse conditions can be attributed simply to Modimo (God), for example, some droughts, some famines etc.

However, it should be noted that these can also be attributed to any of the above causes.

Therefore in traditional medicine treatment of ill-health (which here includes all adverse conditions) is in terms of treating the cause of the adverse conditions. That is before the condition which traditionally may only be seen as a symptom can be successfully treated, the traditional practitioner must divine the cause. It will also be noted that in Tswana traditional medical philosophy, as in many other African countries, ill-health is caused by disharmony in the social environment involving severed social relationships. Therefore the main aim to effect a successful treatment is to restore harmony, i.e. to repair the broken social relationships. When these are repaired, then the various symptoms of ill-health (these include the European category of ill-health, but also unsuccessful agricultural enterprises, family illness, bad luck etc.) will also disappear.

SOME ADDITIONAL TRADITIONAL BELIEFS

This is perhaps the best place to include a brief account of some of the other traditional beliefs held about various phenomena. Some of the examples that follow include beliefs about omens foretelling future events. Others involve taboos, which if they are broken, cause the problems associated with meila - the breaking of taboos.

1. Noga ya metsi - The Water Snake

The belief in noga ya metsi - the water snake is a widespread Sotho-Tswana belief. The water snake is believed to live in dams, rivers and caves. It may take the form of half fish and half man or woman (rather like a merman/mermaid). It also is supposed to have the power of enchanting humans by changing itself into beautiful colours. There are believed to be both male and female ones who at times can "steal" humans to "marry" them. They are believed to hypnotise their victims by their rainbow colours, then the victim, in this state, continues to be drawn into the water or cave. Even if they are dragged back by companions they will remain in a confused state until they are doctored by a traditional doctor.

In Kanye it is believed that there is a water snake in Mmakgodumo Dam to the North-East of the village, and also another such snake in the caves of Kwakwe Hill on the South-Western side of the main village. Some people say there are underground tunnels connecting the dam and the hill through which these snakes can pass to visit each other.

During the early 1960's a group of small boys went to swim in the dam, and one of the boys was drawn into the water. His companions were unable to pull him out. The police were called as many people were too afraid to touch the boy. When the body was eventually recovered from the water, where it had been partly submerged, the soft parts had been eaten out, such as lips, mouth, nose, eyes; fingers and toes were also missing. This incident was related to me by various informants, the brother of one of whom had been a member of the original swimming group.

In October 1978, during my field work, there was a similar case. Again a group of small boys went to a nearby dam and two of them were supposed to have been killed by the snake. When the second boy was killed the other small boys ran away. Again when the bodies were recovered later in the day, the soft parts had been eaten..

During large gatherings such as the local Independence celebrations and the annual Kanye Agricultural Show, it is often very windy but immediately preceding and following these occasions the weather is "normal". (It should be noted that the Agricultural Show is not held on a fixed date, but is fitted into a schedule of local Agricultural Shows held around the country annually, so it takes place somewhere between June and August. Independence is of course always celebrated on September 30th). This windy cold weather is popularly believed to be "sent" by the water snake that lives on Kwakwe Hill - certainly after hearing about this belief I did observe that at the July 1981 show the wind did blow from the direction of Kwakwe Hill, although the next day it was from the opposite direction and a much warmer wind!

This belief in the water snake is still widely held today but probably most people only half believe the stories. For example, Botswana Daily News reported a story early in 1982. Villagers in Mmankgodi, a sub-village, at a recent kgotla meeting had refused to allow a dangerous water snake to be killed even though it had killed 5 goats. To support their refusal to allow the snake to be killed the elders ".. quoted an incident which they claimed happened 50 years ago when a similar snake was killed in Kolobeng and the land became dry until the past few years." Eventually it was agreed not to kill the snake but instead to erect a security fence around the area where it was believed to live.

In addition, people can also be bewitched to be troubled by the water snake. This belief will again be referred to in the section on Zion Churches.

2. "Natural" Phenomena

Many phenomena that are believed to be natural in the West are traditionally believed to be attracted by the breaking of certain taboos or alternatively "directed" by the action of sorcerers. Below are examples of some of these phenomena. Other such phenomena are believed to be omens of bad luck or even death.

a) Lightning - tladi

Every year much damage is done by lightning both within Kanye and the surrounding district; houses are burnt, cattle are killed, and it is by no means uncommon for people to be struck and killed by lightning. Lightning is not believed to be a purely natural phenomenon, not only are individuals believed to attract it by the non-observance of certain practices but it may also be "directed" to individuals by others through the use of sorcery. Traditional people believe that lightning could be "sent" or "directed" because it consisted of a bird called tladi which was believed to have long bright red wings. When the lightning flashes are seen it is supposed to be this bird passing low over the ground. Sorcerers are believed to have the power to attract this bird as does the breaking of certain taboos.

Many of these taboos are concerned with water. For example many dikgotla forbid non-residents to pass through the kgotla with water or cattle dung as this can attract lightning to the kgotla. It is also believed to attract lightning to throw the dirty water over a lolwapa wall. In fact water should always be poured onto the ground never thrown. Water should never be passed through a fence even if it is a "short cut" it should be always brought through the entrance.

Other taboos are connected with fire. For example, fire should never

be thrown, nor taken from place to place at night - a lit candle is

never carried around the yard at night. During the first rain of the

..§.

year, one is not supposed to dig or plant, nor to drink the waterst

as these practices are believed to attract lightning.

Baloi are supposed to attack their victims by hiding boloi in

the victim's yard and this can attract lightning. Much of traditional

doctors' protections are to neutralise the effects of this type of

boloi.

During a storm there are several precautions that are believed

to protect against lightning striking. For example, all radiost

batteriest and mirrors should be covered as they are believed to

attract lightning. People may avoid wearing red or white during the

lightning season as these are colours that are believed to attract it

to strike. Also, when building a house, the entrance to the lwa-lapa

should never be opposite the entrance to the house as this is supposed

.. 1 .

h h *1 . d

to encourage l~ghtn~ng to trave ~nto t e ouse. Aga~n, ur~ng a

stormt people should not cover their heads (for examplet with a jersey

or a blanket) as this is believed to attract lightning to the house.

Lightning may be driven away in various ways. For examplet if

salt is thrown into the fire or the leaves of the mosetlha or

mositwane trees are thrown into the airt at the same time repeating

"Golela, golelat Modimo." ("Go highert go higher, God.") lightning

may be driven away. Howevert as this is also believed to drive away

* 1 See Diagram 1 & 2 (p6dx) &.(xx) ). None of the entrances to the

individual malwapa (yards) were opposite the doorways of the

individual houses of the yards.

- 148

the clouds bringing rain. it is only done in extreme emergencles.

If a person's property or an individual is struck by lightning

a traditional doctor is consulted to divine the cause. If he finds that

taboos have been broken the person will probably be charged a high fee

to cleanse them. If it is boloi then they will be doctored to give them

protection. In January 1979. during a thunderstorm, a house in our

kgotla was struck and burnt to the ground despite the efforts to put out

the fire. It is not true in Setswana that "lightning never strikes in

the same place twice" as this family had been struck several times at

their Cattle posts and Lands and also in Kanye. Traditional doctors

found that they were being attacked by boloi from their own kgotla. Who

were jealous.

Again in February 1979. lightning struck during a football

practice on the ground on top of the hill. Two of the players were

even killed. This included one student who was from Kanye whose

family had suffered a lot of recent trouble. the boy's father had been

killed the year before in a~road accident. A girl who was the neighbour

of the family I stayed with at their Lands, fell off her bicycle in

February 1979 and had to have six stitches on her leg. Then in April

she was struck by lightning. Apparently she was being bewitched because

people in her kgotla were jealous that she was engaged into a rich

family.

The above examples are to illustrate how lightning is believed to

be one of the ways that baloi attack their victims, some further

examples of the use baloi make of lightning are included in Chapter 6.and Vol.2.

b) Shooting Stars and cornets

Shooting stars and comets are believed to be omens of bad luck,

especially of death, in particular the death of a great person such as

a member of the royal family. The bigger the shooting star, the more

important the person for whose death it is an omen. For example at the

end of June 1980 there was a very big shooting star; on July 13th 1980

Sir Seretse Kharna, the First President of Botswana (and also by descent

the Paramount Chief of the Bangwato), died. .

Whenever people see a shooting star they say: "Naledi ga ke a

go bona ke le asi. ke go bone le batho." (0 star. I haven't seen you

alone, I have seen you with people.") This is an attempt to avert the

bad luck from themselves, much as throwing three pinches of spilt salt

over the left shoulder, according to an English belief.

c) The new moon

The position of

for the coming month.

~, the month will

the crescent moon 1S believed to be an omen

For example when it is in the position of a dish:-

be a bad one and many people will die: this is

because the disease and death around in the atmosphere will be cdlected

in the "dish" and not be poured out, as it will be when the crescent is

tilted on its side:- ( .

People wish on seeing the new moon, similarly to the English

custom, for example for luck, long life, happiness etc.

Another belief connected with the new moon is that the very first

stage is supposed to be seen by baboons only and this is the time for

baboons to start menstruating. Women should only start menstruating

from the second day onwards. Naturally the moon is the way that illiterate

people judge the months of pregnancy.

d) Unnatural Behaviour of Animals

Various omens are connected with the unnatural behaviour of

animals. For example, if chickens lay eggs with soft shells or eat

their own eggs, this is believed to be an omen of the death of a close

relative. If a hen "crows" like a cock this is also believed to be an

omen of death. Such chickens are usually slaughtered quickly to avert

the bad luck.

If cats or dogs defecate in the house, or mate near people, this is

again believed to be an omen of death.

The passing of certain small creatures (such as worms) across the

path of a walker is a very bad omen. Similarly if any dead reptilian

creature is upside down, the body should be turned the right way up as

it is believed that otherwise bad luck would be attracted.

e) Pythons

It is a terrible taboo to kill pythons. Only traditional doctors

uS1ng special protections may kill them. It is believed that if they

are killed, rain will be driven away and a horrible dusty wind that

encourages rain clouds to evaporate will blow from the direction where

the snake was killed. This wind is supposed to be caused by a terrible

gas that is exhaled by the dying snake. The drying wind is sent from

Badimo who are strongly displeased by the killing of pythons.

On November 13th 1980 promising rain clouds gathered in the

morning and the wind was from the correct direction of the first rains.

However by lunchtime they had disappeared, there was a terrible cold,

dusty wind like that typical of August. The wind had also changed to

blow from the oppositedirection- from the Kgalagadi.

Everyone was very surprised about this until the next day when

it was heard that a python had been killed by the police during the

morning of the previous day. Apparently the python had tried to eat a

baby. Fortunately the baby had been saved in time, but then the python

had attacked and eaten a goat. When the police were called they had shot

it. When the wind had changed direction it had started to blow from the

direction from where the snake was killed. The police were not from Kanye,

but from the north of Botswana where there are different beliefs.

e) Baboon Spider

There is a large black hairy spider which lives in a hole ~n

the ground. It mak~a web over the entrance of its hole which is about

the size of an egg. If bitten by this spider the only cure is to return

to the spider's hole and step on the hole again saying:- "Lesire e ke

go gata ka bomo." ("Spider, I step on you on purpose.") Although the

person will be bitten again, this is believed to be the only cure.

The brother of one of my informants was bitten by a baboon spider

in 1964. He was taken to the local hospital and given various forms of

treatment, but was not cured. During the next three months his foot

became worse and worse, so that he was unable to attend school.

Eventually neighbours advised his family to try the above cure - within

three days he had recovered.

Even if a person steps on the hole but is not bitten it is

believed that a bad sore will develop, so as a prevention to this happening

an individual should always spit on the hole and say the above words:-

"Lesire e ke go gata ka bomo."

f) Thokolosi

(see Chapter 6, p. 130-131)

Houses divined by the traditional doctors to have been struck by “directed” lightning. As a result they were burnt out and all the property of the owners that was stored inside, was destroyed.

Fire

Other taboos are connected with fire. For example, fire should never be thrown, nor taken from place to place at night - a lit candle is never carried around the yard at night. During the first rain of the year, one is not supposed to dig or plant, nor to drink the waters as these practices are believed to attract lightning.

Sorcerers are supposed to attack their victims by hiding sorcery in the victim's yard and this can attract lightning. Much of traditional doctors' protections are to neutralise the effects of this type of sorcery.

During a storm there are several precautions that are believed to protect against lightning striking. For example, all radios, batteries and mirrors should be covered as they are believed to attract lightning. People may avoid wearing red or white during the lightning season as these are colours that are believed to attract it to strike. Also, when building a house, the entrance to the lwa-lapa should never be opposite the entrance to the house as this is supposed to encourage lightning to travel into the house. Again during a storm people should not cover their heads (for example with a jersey or a blanket) as this is believed to attract lightning to the house.

Lightning may be driven away in various ways. For example if salt is thrown into the fire or the leaves of the mosetlha or mositwane trees are thrown into the air at the same time repeating "Golela, golela Modimo." ("Go highert go higher, God.") lightning may be driven away. However, as this is also believed to drive away the clouds bringing rain. it is only done in extreme emergencies.

If a person's property or an individual is struck by lightning a traditional doctor is consulted to divine the cause. If he finds that taboos have been broken the person will probably be charged a high fee to cleanse them. If it is sorcerer then the patient will be doctored to give them protection. In January 1979. during a thunderstorm, a house in our kgotla was struck and burnt to the ground despite the efforts to put out the fire. It is not true in Setswana that "lightning never strikes in the same place twice" as this family had been struck several times at their Cattle posts and Lands and also in Kanye. Traditional doctors found that they were being attacked by sorcerers from their own kgotla who were jealous of them.

Again in February 1979 lightning struck during a football practice on the ground on top of the hill. Two of the players were even killed. This included one student who was from Kanye whose family had suffered a lot of recent trouble. The boy's father had been killed the year before in a road accident. A girl who was the neighbour of the family I stayed with at their Lands, fell off her bicycle in February 1979 and had to have six stitches on her leg. Then in April she was struck by lightning. Apparently she was being bewitched because people in her kgotla were jealous that she was engaged into a rich family.

The above examples are to illustrate how lightning is believed to be one of the ways that sorcerers attack their victims, some further examples of the use sorcerers make of lightning are included in the section on Sorcery.

b) Shooting Stars and comets

Shooting stars and comets are believed to be omens of bad luck, especially of death, in particular the death of a great person such as a member of the royal family. The bigger the shooting star, the more important the person for whose death it is an omen. For example at the end of June 1980 there was a very big shooting star; on July 13th 1980 Sir Seretse Kharna, the First President of Botswana (and also by descent the Paramount Chief of the Bangwato), died.

Whenever people see a shooting star they say: "Naledi ga ke a go bona ke le asi, ke go bone le batho." (“0 star, I haven't seen you alone, I have seen you with people.") This is an attempt to avert the bad luck from themselves, much as throwing three pinches of spilt salt over the left shoulder, according to an English belief.

c) The new moon

The position of new moon is believed believed to be an omen for the coming month. For example when it is in the position of a dish it is believed to be a bad omen and many people will die. This is because the disease and death around in the atmosphere will be collected in the "dish" and not be poured out, as it will be when the crescent is tilted on its side. People wish on seeing the new moon, similarly to the English custom, for example for luck, long life, happiness etc.

Another belief connected with the new moon is that the very first stage is supposed to be seen by baboons only and this is the time for baboons to start menstruating. Women should only start menstruating from the second day onwards. Naturally the moon is the way that illiterate people judge the months of pregnancy.

d) Unnatural Behaviour of Animals

Various omens are connected with the unnatural behaviour of animals. For example, if chickens lay eggs with soft shells or eat their own eggs, this is believed to be an omen of the death of a close relative. If a hen "crows" like a cock this is also believed to be an omen of death. Such chickens are usually slaughtered quickly to avert the bad luck.

If cats or dogs defecate in the house, or mate near people, this is again believed to be an omen of death.

The passing of certain small creatures (such as worms) across the path of a walker is a very bad omen. Similarly if any dead reptilian creature is upside down, the body should be turned the right way up as it is believed that otherwise bad luck would be attracted.